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4.1  Portuguese exploration

Prince Henry (1394-1460), third son of King John I of Portugal, spent a great deal of his life and his personal fortune encouraging Portuguese exploration. He took part in the conquest of Ceuta during which he realised the importance of seapower against his Moslem enemies. He founded a school of navigation and map making, where he employed experts not only to train captains and pilots, but also to interpret the information they brought back from their voyages. His encouragement led, after his death, to the circumnavigation of Africa and their discovery of an ocean route to the Orient from Europe.^[1]

Some twenty years later, King John II, who reigned from 1481 to 1495, wanting to find the land of Prester John, Ethiopia, sent out two expeditions. One expedition led by Bartholomeu Dias left Lisbon by sea in 1487, rounded the Cape, reached the East African coast and returned to Lisbon in December 1488. The second expedition despatched Pero da Covilha and Alfonso de Paiva overland. Setting off on 7 May 1487, thay travelled through Naples, Rhodes, Alexandria and Cairo before reaching Aden. Here they split up as de Paiva set off for the land of Prester John and Covilha to India. After a year in India Covilha, who spoke fluent Arabic and posed as a merchant, went to Ormuz sometime between October 1489 and March 1490 and then returned to Cairo. Here he met two Jews, the Rabbi Abraham of Beja and a cobbler, José de Lamego despatched by John II to find Covilha and ask if he had discovered the empire of Prester John.^[2]José de Lamego was sent back to Portugal with news of Covilha’s journeys, Rabbi Abraham set out for Ormuz, the commercial significance of which had recently become known to John II, escorted by Covilha who then visited Jedda, Mecca and Medina on his way to Abyssinia.^[3] It was now clear that India could be reached sea using the Cape route.

In 1493 a Genoese, Geronimo de Santo Stefano, arrived at Calicut in India from Aden. His journey continued to Ceylon, Burma, Malacca and Sumatra. On his return trip he passed through the Maldives, Cambay and Ormuz. He wrote an account of his travels in 1496.^[4]

 

[In Hormuz] he was befriended by some Alexandrian and Damascene merchants. These helped him to reach Aleppo by way of Shiraz, I?fahan, Sul?aniyya and Tabriz. He refers to Armenian merchants in Hurmuz. Another Venetian mentions that “the merchaunts that travaill either out of India into Persia or out of Persia into India, for the more parte do all arryve in this ilande”.

It is probable that Persian maritime trade with India in particular and the east in general reached a high level of activity in the last decade of the 15th century in both variety and volume.^[5]

 

In July 1497, Vasco de Gama was sent by King Manuel I to pioneer the ocean route to India. On the way through the Atlantic he was to pass within 600 miles of the South American coast. Stopping along the African coast at St. Helena Bay, Mossel Bay, Natal, Mozambique and Mombasa, he reached Malindi on the east coast from where he needed to obtain a pilot to guide his fleet across the Indian Ocean.

Vasco de Gama found Ahmad ibn Majid who agreed to act as pilot from Malindi across the Indian Ocean to India. Ahmad ibn Majid was also known as a writer of a sailing manual for, amongst other areas, the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf as Thomas Arnold related in his book The Legacy of Islam (see chapter one for more details of Ahmed bin Majid):

 

He was generally known to the chroniclers as ‘Malema Canaqua’, a distortion of his arabic title which meant ‘Master Astrologer’. His real name was Ahmed bin Majid. a Gujerati who was indeed a master of his trade. He was no ordinary pilot, but a scholar well-known throughout the Arab world for his knowledge of the sciences of navigation and astronomy.^[6]

 

Twenty four days after setting out from Calicut on the east coast of Africa, Vasco de Gama aided by Ahmed bin Majid reached Calicut in India on the 18 May 1498. Within six months of Vasco de Gama’s return to Portugal in September 1499 with specimens of pepper, cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon and precious stones, thirteen vessels commanded by Pedro Alvares Cabral left Portugal to officially open relations with India. On board were Nicolau Coelho, Bartolomeu Dias and his brother Diogo, Duarte Pacheco Pereira, the author of the Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis, various nobles, nine chaplains, a total of some 1,200 persons and provisions for eighteen months.^[7] Touching Brazil on the 22 April 1500, six ships arrived at Sofala in July and Calicut in India on 13 September 1500. Cabral left India in January 1501 to return to Portugal. Between 1501 and 1505 a further six expeditions were sent out from Portugal.^[8]

·       Ludovico Varthema

Ludovico Varthema sailed from Venice in 1502 on a journey that passed through Mecca, Yemen, the Hadramaut, Hormuz, Persia as far as Shiraz, the Indian coasts, Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula, Sumtra, Java, Banda, the Moluccas and Borneo returning in 1508.^[9] Leaving Aden for India on 4 March 1504, he stopped en route at the port of Dhofar, “the port for horses and frankincense”, and Muscat arriving at Hormuz sometime in May 1504^[10] just before the arrival of the Portuguese had the following to say about the prosperity of the place:

 

Of the Iland and citie of Ormus, or Armusium: and a Persian Iland where pearles are found.

Proceedying on our viage, we came to a citie named Ormus, very fayre. This is seconde to none in goodlye situation, and plentie of pearles: It is an Ilande dystaunt from the continent twelue myles: It hathe great scarceness of freshe water and corne, from other regions is brought thyther all victualles that nouryshe the inhabitauntes.

 

The writer digresses at this point to what must be a reference to Bahrain and describes the pearling there, then continues with what may be assumed to be the description of Hormuz:

 

Three dayes saylyng from thence, are geathered those muscles which bring foorth the fayrest and byggest pearles: they are taken as I will nowe declare. There are certayne men that get theyr lyuing by fyshyng. These hauing small Boates cast into the sea a great stone, fastened to a crode, and this on both sydes of the Boate, to make it as stedfast and immouable as a shyppe lying at an anker. The Boate thus stayed as it were with weyght and balance, an other appoynted to that purpose, casteth in the sea a corde with a stone hangyng at it. In the myddest of the Boate an other hauyng a sacke hangyng on his shoulder before and behynde, and a stone hangyng at his feete, hurleth him selfe into the sea, and swimmeth vnder the water euen vnto the bottome of the sea, for the deapthe of fyftiene pases or more, and there remaineth vntyll he have geathered the pearle muscles, which he putteth in his sacke, then he casteth away the stone that weyghed him downe, and commeth vp by the corde. There are seene sometyme almost three hundred shyppes, and other kynde of vessels, which come thyther from many places and countreys. The Soltan of the citie, is a Mahumetan. There are aboue foure hundred merchauntes and factours remayning here continually, for the trafike of merchandies which come from diuers other regions, as silke, pearles, precious stones, spices, and suche lyke. They lyue with Ryse for the moste parte, for they haue none other corne.^[11]

 

Doubts on the credibility of Varthema’s narrative were raised within 50 years of his return by another traveller, Garcia da Orta, a Spaniard in the employ of the Portuguese. However Sir Richard Temple writing in a preface to The Itinerary of Ludovico di Varthema of Bologna from 1502 to 1508 in 1863 felt that Varthema was maligned.^[12] If Varthema’s credibility was intact, then what of  the account by Wetromannus? Similar doubts have been raised over Marco Polo’s account of his travels. The following account of Varthema’s narrative was translated by John Winter Jones in 1863 from the original Italian version of 1510:

 

There is an immense trade in this city. Four hundred Turkish merchants reside here constantly. This city is surrounded by walls and contains much artillery within it. They have certain vessels which are called thalae [at-talâyî, atalaya], which are [shoreboats] somewhat less than galleys. We departed thence and went to a city which is called Goa [Gôghâ, Gogo], distant from the above about three days’ journey. This Goa is a district of large extent and great traffic, and is fat and wealthy The inhabitants, however, are all Mahommedans. We quitted Goa and went to another district called Guilfar [Giulfar, Zuffâr, Dhofâr], which is most excellent and abounding in everything. There is a good seaport there, from which port setting sail with propitious winds we arrived at another port which is called Meschet [Maskat, Muscat].

Pursuing our journey, we departed from Meschet and went to the noble city of Ormus [Hormûz], which is extremely beautiful. It is an island and is the chief, that is, as a maritime place, and for merchandise. It is distant from the mainland ten or twelve miles. In this said island there is not sufficient water or food, but all comes from the mainland. Near this island, at a distance of three days’ journey, they fish up the largest pearls which are found in the world, and the manner of fishing for them is as you shall hear. There are certain fishers with some little boats, who throw out a large stone attached to a thick rope, one from the stern and one from the prow, in order that the said boats may remain firm: they throw down another rope, also with a stone, to the bottom. In the middle of the boat is one of these fishers, who hangs a couple of bags round his neck, and ties a large stone to his feet, and goes fifteen paces under water, and remains there as long as he is able, in order to find the oysters in which are pearls.

As he finds them he puts them into the bags, and then leaves the stone which he had at his feet, and comes up by one of the said ropes. Some times, as many as three hundred vessels belonging to different countries are assembled at the said city, the Sultan of which is a Mahommedan. At the time when I visited this country, there happened that which you shall hear. The Sultan of Ormus had eleven male children. The youngest was considered to be simple, that is, half a fool: the eldest was looked upon as a devil unchained. Also the said Sultan had brought up two slaves, the sons of Christians, that is, of those of Prester John, whom he had purchased when quite young, and he loved them like his own children. They were gallant cavaliers and lords of castles. One night, the eldest son of the Sultan put out the eyes of his father, mother, and all his brothers, excepting the half-witted one; then he carried them into the chamber of his father and mother, and put fire in the midst, and burnt the chamber with the bodies and all that was therein. Early, in the morning what had take place became known, and the city arose at the rumour, and he fortified, himself in the palace, and proclaimed himself Sultan. The younger brother who was considered a fool, did not, however, show himself to be such a fool as he was supposed to be; for, hearing what had taken place, he took refuge, in a Moorish mosque, saying: “Vualla occuane saithan uchatelabu eculo cuane,” that is, “0 God, my brother is a devil; he has killed my, father, my mother, and all my brothers, and after having killed them he has burnt them. At the expiration of fifteen days the city became tranquil. The Sultan sent for one of the slaves above mentioned and said to him: “Thale inte Mahometh.”. The slave, who was named Mahometh answered: “Escult iasidi,” that is, “What dost thou say, lord?” Said the Sultan: “An ne Soldan?,” that is, “Am I Sultan?.” Mahometh replied: “Heu valla siti inte Soldan,” that is, “Yes, by God, thou art Sultan.” The Sultan took him by the hand and made much: of him, and said to him: “Roa chatel zaibei anneiate arba ochan sechala,” that is, “Go and kill thy companion, and I will give thee five castles.” Mahometh replied: “Iasisi anue iacul menau men saibi theletin sane vualla sidi ancascnt,” that is, “O lord, I have eaten with my companion thirty, years and acted with him, I cannot bring my mind to do such a thing.” Then said the Sultan: “Well, let it alone.” Four days afterwards, the said Sultan sent for the other slave, who was named Caim, and made the same speech to him that he had made to his companion, that is, that he should go and kill. “Bizemele,” Caim said at once, “erechman erachin Iasidi,” that is, “So be it, lord, in the name of God”; and then he armed himself secretly and went immediately to find Mahometh his companion. When Mahometh saw him, he looked him fixedly in the face, and said to him: “0 traitor thou canst not deny it, for I detect thee by thy countenance; but look now, for I will slay thee sooner than that thou slay me.” Caim, who saw himself discovered and known, drew forth his dagger, and threw it at the feet of Mahometh, and falling on his knees before him said: “0, my lord, pardon me although I deserve death, and if it seem good to thee take these arms and kill me, for I came to kill thee.” Mahometh replied: “It may be well said that thou art a traitor, having been with me, and acted with me, and eaten together with me for thirty years, and then at last to wish to put me to death in so vile a manner. Thou poor creature, dost thou not see that this man is a devil. Rise, however, for I pardon thee. But in order that thou mayest understand, know that this man urged me, three days ago, to kill thee, but I would not in any way consent. Now, leave all to God, but go and do as I shall tell thee. Go to the Sultan, and tell him that thou hast slain me.” Caim replied: “I am content,” and immediately went to the Sultan. When the Sultan saw him he said to him:” Well, hast thou slain thy friend?” Caim answered: “Yes, sir, by God.” Said the Sultan: “Come here,” and he went close to the Sultan, who seized him by the breast and killed him by blows of his dagger. Three days afterwards Mahometh armed himself secretly and went to the Sultans’s chamber, who, when he saw him, was disturbed and exclaimed: “O dog, son of a dog, art thou still alive?” Said Mahometh: “I am alive, in spite of thee, and I will kill thee, for thou art worse than a dog or a devil”; and in this way, with their arms in their hands, they fought awhile. At length Mahometh killed the Sultan, and then fortified himself in the palace. And because he was so much beloved in the city, the people all ran to the palace crying out: “Long live Mahometh the Sultan!” and he continued Sultan about twenty days. When these twenty days were passed, he sent for all the lords and merchants of the city, and spoke to them in this wise: “That that which he had done he had been obliged to do; that he well knew that he had no right to the supreme power, and he entreated all the people that they would allow him to make king that son who was considered crazy”; and thus he was made king. It is true, however, that Mahometh governs everything. All the city said: “Surely this man must be the friend of God.” Wherefore he was made governor of the city and of the Sultan, the Sultan being of the condition above mentioned. You must know that there are generally in this city four hundred foreign merchants, who traffic in silks, pearls, jewels, and spices The common food of this city consists more of rice than of bread, because corn does not grow in this place.

Having heard this lamentable event, and seen the customs of the above named city and island of Ormus, departing thence I passed into Persia, and travelling for twelve days I found a city called Eri [Herât-i-Khâra], and the country is called Corazani [Khurâsân], which would be the same as to say “The Romagna.” The King of Corazani dwells in this city, where there is great plenty, and an abundance of stuffs, and especially of silk, so that in one day you can purchase here three thousand or four thousand camel loads of silk. The district is most abundant in articles of food, and there is also a great market for rhubarb. I have seen it purchased at six pounds for the ducat, according to our use, that is, twelve ounces to the pound. This city contains about 6,000 or 7,000 hearths The inhabitants are all Mahommedans. I quitted this place and travelled twenty days on mainland, finding cities and castles very well peopled.^[13]