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3.5  Venetian trade 15c.

Venetian commerce in the Mediterranean was at its height in the fifteenth century and thereafter the prosperity of Venice began to decline as the power of the Ottomans and Spanish grew and they were able to divert trade through Constantinople or other Turkish ports and as the Spanish King, Charles V, doubled custom-house duties payable by the Venetians in his states to 20 per cent and imposed severe trading restrictions with North Africa. In the 16th century the most critical areas in the Mediterrannean were between Sicily and Tunisia and the Adriatic Sea. With the Ottoman Empire to the east and the Spanish Habsburgs to the west, the Adriatic Sea was the life-line of the Venetian Empire and the narrow Strait of Otranto at the south eastern end of vital importance. At this time Venetian terrorities included Spalato and Traù on the Dalmation coast, Cattaro and the islands of Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Crete, Chios, Samos, Naxos and Cyprus together with a number Venetian fortifed centres in Morea the southern part of Greece but by 1566 Chios and Samos was lost to the Ottomans and then five years later Cyprus in 1571. The Venetians did not hold any terrority or forts on the southern side of the Adriatic which was held by the Papal States in the northern half and the Spanish Hapsburgs in the southern half of Italy.^[1] Commerce not only depended on the control or usage of the trade routes but access to the markets at reasonable customs-house duties. Venice was steadily losing dominance on both counts as the Portuguese began their expansion in the East Indies at the beginning of the sixteenth century.

·       Nicoló de’ Conti

Nicoló de’ Conti, a Venetian nobleman and merchant in Damascus, set off sometime in the first half of the 15th century ad on a journey that took him through Persia and India, to the islands of Ceylon, Sumatra and Java. After visiting the south of China he returned across the Indian Ocean passing the coast of Ethiopia, through the Red Sea to Cairo. Here he lost his wife and two children and returned to Venice in 1444 after being away for 25 years. Having converted to Islam to save his life in Cairo he sought absolution from Pope Eugene IV which was granted on condition that he relate his travels to the Pope’s secretary, Poggio Bracciolini.^[2] When Nicoló set off from Damascus he was in a caravan with 600 other merchants till he reached the river Euphrates. He then journeyed down the river and across country till he reached Balsera (Basra) then:

 

and in four days journey beyond at the Persian Gulf, where the sea rises and falls in the manner of the Atlantic Ocean. Sailing through this gulf for the space of five days he came to the port of Colcus, and afterwards to Ormus (which is a small island in the said gulf), distant from the mainland twelve miles. Leaving this island and turning towards India for the space of one hundred miles, he arrived at the city of Calacatia, a very noble emporium of the Persians. Here, having remained for some time, he learned the Persian language, of which he afterwards made great use, and also adopted the dress of the country, which he continued to wear during the whole period of his travels. Subsequently he and some Persian merchants freighted a ship, having first taken a solemn oath to be faithful and loyal companions one to another.

Sailing in this wise together, he arrived in the course of a month at the very noble city of Cambay, situated in the second gulf after having passed the mouth of the river Indus.^[3]

 

The present name of the town he refers to as Calacatia is unknown but taking his directions and that it was likely to be a port then it would most likely was Qalhat on the Omani coast. Interestingly Conti related further on in his accounts that when in the interior of India he came across Venetian ducats in circulation as well as golden coins weighing twice as much as the florin together with silver and bress money.^[4]

·       Abd-er-Razzák

Abd-er-Razzák, who was born in Herát in ah 816 (ad 1413) was sent on a mission by Shah Rukh to one of the kings of India at Vijanagar. Setting out in January 1442, by way of Kohistan and Kirman he arrived at Hormuz and states^[5]:

 

On the fifth day of Schewal (February 16th) I quitted the city of Kerman. On my road I met the Emir Hadji-Mohammed, on his return from an expedition which he had made into the province of Benboul. Continuing my journey, I arrived towards the middle of the month at the shore of the Sea of Oman, and at Bender-Ormuz. The prince of Ormuz, Melik-Fakhr-Eddin-Touranschah, having placed a vessel at my disposal, I went on board of it, and made my entry into the city of Ormuz. I had had assigned to me a house, with everything that I could require, and I was admitted to an audience of the prince.

Ormuz, which is also called Djerrun, is a port situated in the middle of the sea, and which has not its equal on the surface of the globe. The merchants of seven climates, from Egypt, Syria, the country of Roum, Azerbijan, Irak-Arabi, and Irak-Adjemi, the provinces of Pars, Khorassan, Ma-wara-amahar, Turkistan, the kingdom of Deschti-Kaptchack, the countries inhabited by the Kalmucks, the whole of the kingdoms of Tchin and Matchin, and the city of Khanbalik, all make their way to this port; the inhabitants of the sea coasts arrive here from the countries of Tchin, Java, Bengal, the cities of Zirbad, Tenasserim, Sokotora, Schahrinou, the islands of Dîwah-Mahall, the counties of Malabar, Abyssinia, Zanguebar, the ports of Bidjanagar, Kalbergah, Gudjarat, Kanbait, the coasts of Arabia, which extend as far as Aden, Jiddah, and Yembo; they bring hither those rare and precious articles which the sun, the moon, and the rains have combined to bring to perfection; and which are capable of being transported by sea. Travellers from all countries resort hither, and, in exchange for the commodities which they bring, they can without trouble or difficulty obtain all that they desire. Bargains are made either by money or by exchange.

For all objects, with the exception of gold and silver, a tenth of their value is paid by way of duty. Persons of all religions, and even idolators, are found in great numbers in this city, and no injustice is permitted towards any person whatever. This city is also named Dâralaman (the abode of security). The inhabitants unite the flattering character of the people of Irak with the profound cunning of the Indians. I sojourned in this place for the space of two months; and the governors sought all kinds of pretexts to detain me; so that the favorable time for departing by sea, that is to say the beginning or middle of the monsoon, was allowed to pass, and we came to the end of the monsoon, which is the season when tempests and attacks from pirates are to be dreaded. Then they gave me permission to depart. As the men and horses could not all be contained in this same vessel, they were distributed among several ships. The sails were hoisted, and we commenced our voyage.^[6]

 

Being too late for the monsoon to India, he had no alternative but to pass several months at Muscat before continuing to Vijanagar. At an audience with the king, Abd-er-Razzák was told by him that he proposed to send to the Shah some expensive presents on Abd-er-Razzák’s return. Some merchants from Ormuz were jealous and indicated that Abd-er-Razzák had no authority. When Abd-er-Razzák did eventually leave, he was given presents of considerably less value than was originally intended and told by the king that he would be given a better reception next time if he had proof of his credentials from the Shah. Sailing from Mangalore on the 28th January, 1444:

 

In retracing the story of my voyage, I had reached the point at which the new moon of Moharrem shewed us her shining face on the sea. The vessel still remained at sea for several days. On our arrival at the port of Muscat we cast anchor.

After having repaired the damages which the vessel had suffered through the effect, of the storms, we re-embarked, and continued our voyage.

After leaving Muscat, the vessel arrived at the port of Jurufgan, where it put in for a day or two. On this occasion we felt during one night such excessive heat, that at day- break one would have said that the heavens had set the earth on fire. So intense was the heat which scorched up the atmosphere, that even the bird of rapid flight was burnt up in the heights of heaven, as well as the fish in the depths, of the sea. I re-embarked and set sail from the port of Jurufgan, and reached Ormuz on the forenoon of Friday, the eighth day of the month of Safar [April 22nd, 1444]. Our voyage from the port of Honawer to Ormuz had lasted sixty-five days.^[7]

 

·       Afanasii Nikitin

At the beginning of the Russian expansion in 1466, Ivan the Great (Ivan III) in Muscovy had received an ambassador from the Shah of Shirvan. He wanted to reciprocate this by

sending Vasilii Papin accompanied by some merchants including Afanasii Nikitin. Accosted by Tartars they were robbed and some were taken prisoner. The rest were set free so long at they did not return to Russia. There is no indication of how Nikitin survived his journey but he eventually reached Hormuz where he spent Easter 1469.^[8] From his writings:

 

From Yezd I proceeded to Sirjan (or Kirwan) and to Tarom (Tarem), where the cattle are fed with dates at four altyn the batman; and from Tarem to Lar, and from Lar to Bender (Bunder-Abbas); and here there is a seaport, Hormyz (Hormuz), and the Indian Sea, called in the Persian tongue Doria of Hondustan.

Hormuz is four miles across the water and stands on an island. Twice a day the sea flows around it, and here I celebrated the first, great day, having reached Hormuz four weeks before the great day. I have not named the many and large cities through which I passed. At Hormuz the sun is scorching and burns man. I stopped there a month. On the first week after the great day, I shipped my horse in a tava, and sailed across the Indian Sea in ten dayes to Moshkat (Muscat). Thence in four days to Degh(?); and farther to Kuzrat (Gujrat) and Kanbat (Cambay), where the indigo grows; and lastly to Chivil.

 

… It takes ten days to go by sea from Ormuz to Golat (Kalat); from Kalat to Degh six days; from Degh to Moshkat (Muscat) six days; from Moshkat to Gujzrat ten days, from Gujzrat to Combat (Cambay) four days; from Combat to Chivil (Chaul) twelve days; and from Chivil to Dabyl (Dabul) six day.

 

… Hormuz is a vast emporium of all the world; you find there people and goods of every description, and whatever thing is produced on earth you find it in Hormuz. But: the duties are high, one tenth of everything.

 

… I can well get from Hindostan to Hormuz, but there is no road from there to Khorassan; nor to Chegotay, nor to Kitabagraim, nor to Tezd, for all these places have been conquered by the Bulgack, and their kings expelled.

 

…I remained five days in that country, and, by the mercy of God, met with no evil, but distributed among the natives a quantity of brynetz, pepper, and bread, in order that they might not plunder our ship.

From thence I reached Muscat in twelve days; and there I held the sixth great holiday. Nine days journey brought me to Hormuz, where I stayed twenty days.

From Hormuz I proceeded thus:— First to Lar, where I stopped three days; then in twelve days from Lar to Shiraz, stopped there seven days; in fifteen days from Shiraz to Vergh, stopped there ten days; in nine days from Velergh to Yezd, stopped there eight days; in five days from Yezd to Ispahan, stopped there six days; from Ispahan to Kashan, where I stopped five days, from Kashan I went by Koom, Sava, Sultania, Tabreez, and came to the orda of Assanbek.^[9]

 

Another translation of Nikitin’s manuscript describes Hormuz as:

 

And Hormuz lies on an island which is flooded by the sea twice a day. There I kept my first Easter, having arrived four weeks before the feast.

I have not above listed all the cities, for there are many more great cities. The sun at Hormuz is blazing-hot, and may burn one. I stayed there for a month, and in the first week after Easter, I sailed across the Indian Sea on a dabba with horses.^[10]

 

·       Giosafat Barbaro

Giosafat Barbaro, a Venetian, travelled in the southern part of Persia and was at Harmuz around 1475 on a special mission to Uziin Hasan, which lasted from 1473 to 1478.^[11]

 

In which sea there is an ilande that hath a citie called Ormuos, between xviij and xx myles from the mayne lande: the ilande being a Ix myles in compasse. That citie is great and well enhabited, but they haue none other than well water and cisterne water; whereof, whan they finde any lacke, they arr faine to sende into the mayne lande for it, from whense they also haue their grayne. It yeldeth tribute to the King Assambei, and thinhabitaunts arr great makers of sylkes. And the merchaunts that travaill either out of India into Persia or out of Persia into India, for the more parte do all arryve in this ilande. The Lorde whereof is called Sultan Sabadin, who vseth to sende his barkes into India to fyshe for oysters of perles, and there looseth many; and whilest I remaigned on this citie there arryved twoo merchaunts out of India with perles, jewells, sylkes, and spices. Into this golfe of Persia falleth the notable ryver EUPHRATES, vpon the which vj daies iorney vpwardes is BAGDATH, sometime called BABILONE, which was so famouse, as the worlde know^th, though at this present it be for the more parte destroyed, not exceading x^ml houses. Nevertheles, it is plentyfully victailed, having abundance of fruictes: as dates, pistacchi, and other like, not only in great quantitie, but also of excellent goodnes: amongest the which arr qwynces of the taste and greatnesse of ours. Nevertheles, they haue qwinces that haue no hardenes w'hin them, as o^rs haue, but arr most sweete in the eating, as o^r sweetest peares be. They also haue a kynde of pomegranates, not very great,but for the more parte w^th a thynne rynde, which they pyll as we pyll oranges: and than may byte it neither more nor lesse than as it were an apple ; for they haue none of those cores in the myddest, but even a litell in the botome, and the sweetnes of it is myngled w^th a litle sharpe. And some there be that wante the litle Cornell which o^rs hath w’hin the graine, and some other haue it so softe that y^o shall no more feele of it in yo^r mowth to spytt out againe, than as if ye did eate of correyns. They also make much suger and pfect confeciones thereof, specially siropes, of the which they furnishe Persia and other places.

Nowe, reto’neng to Ormuos, I shall somewhat saie of the places that arr forneagainst it on the other syde of the foresaid golfe northewardes, which is of the coste of Persia. These places arr enhabited w^th Macomettanes, and this golfe in itself is ccc myles broade, and the places on the other syde of the golfe arr vrider the domynion of iii princes, Macomettanes. Comyng to lande eastsoutheast, as the golfe goeth, at thende of it there is a citie called CALICUTH, of verie great fame, being, as it were, a staple or a receipt of merchaunts of divers places, as who wolde saye of those that come out of the golfe of Catay and from all those partes: so that alwaies ye shall finde a nombre of shippes—yea, and great shippes there. Bicause there seldome happeneth any great tempest. The citie is a passaige haunted wth merchaundise of all sortes, and is both great and well peopled.

Reto^rmeng alongest the coste, forneagainst Ormuos there is a towne called Lar, a great and a good towne of merchaundise, about ij^ml houses: and is a passaige for those that go and come through this golfe lyghtely lande at this towne.^[12]

 

·       Hieronimo di Santo Stefano

Later then Barbaro, we have an account of the journey of Hieronimo di Santo Stefano, a Genovese, who passed through Hormuz on his return from India written in a letter to Messer Giovan Jacobo Mainer:

 

and thus I arrived in one of the said ships at Cambay, the chief of which is a Mahometan, and a great lord.

From this place are procured lac and indigo. Here I found some Moorish merchants of Alexandria and Damascus, by whom I was assisted with money for my expenses. I afterwards made an arrangement with a merchant, a sheriff of Damascus, and remained in his service one month, and then proceeded to Ormuz with some of his goods, in sailing to which place I was at sea sixty days. Having there paid all the dues on his merchandize which I had brought with me, and left them with his agent, I prepared to depart. In this place of Ormuz are found many good pearls and good merchandize. I started from thence in company with some Armenian and Azami merchants by land, and after many days reached the country of the said Azami, where I remained for the space of one month, waiting for the chance of accompanying the caravan. With this I afterwards came to Shiraz, where, on account of the war which was then waging, I stayed three months. Thence I went to Ispahan, and thence to Kazan. Thence to the city of Sultanieh, and finally to Tauris, where I steed many days, because the pearls were not safe on account of the wars. From Tauris I went to Aleppo, and in the middle of our journey, while with the caravan, we were attacked and plundered. Again I was assisted by some merchants of Azami, who were with the same caravan, and was enabled to proceed to Aleppo.^[13]

 

The letter was written in Tripoli, Syria and dated the 1^st September 1499.