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2.5  al-K_h_^warazmi and Arab Cartographers

As we have seen early history is dependent on the works of Herodotus, Strabo, Pliny, Arrian, Ptolemy and Amminanus Macellinus. With the paucity of material available for the current period we are dependent on another group, in this case Arab geographers and travellers. There are many excellent books that have been written about this group but a summary is applicable here particularly where it concerns the region about the Straits.

The astronomer al-K_h_^warazmi adapted the work of Ptolemy about 830 ad although the map that must have accompanied his text is lost. al-K_h_^warazmi’s longitudes and latitudes are essentially those of Ptolemy but the book also gives the geographical positions of such places as originated after the conquest of Islam. On the Caliph’s instructions some seventy scholars including al-K_h_^warazmi produced a book entitled Surat al-Ard or Image of the Earth. As a result the book produced by al-K_h_^warazmi may possibly contain the results of the research of the other scholars. It does contain other influences such as the division of the inhabited world into seven zones or climates which is not in Ptolemy.^[1]

However ideological religious views existed for both Christian and Islamic scholars. The Quran contains in two separate statements that God has separated the two seas by an insurmountable barrier.^[2] The two seas are interpreted as the Mediterranean and the Indian ocean, including the Red Sea and considered to be of Persian origin. (Ptolemy’s idea of the prolongation of the east coast of Africa to the east fitted well with the theory of the two seas.) These maps of the world are circular with Mecca being at the centre. Two gulfs are shown, that of the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean surrounded at the edge by an encircling sea. The first author of this type of map is said to be Abu Zaid al-Balkhi (d. 934) whose book has not survived but similar maps were produced by the Muslem geographer al-Is?t?ak_h_ri (c. 950)^[3] and Ibn H?awk?al (c. 975).^[4]

These schematical maps produced by the Arabs show a more exact notion of geographical reality than the oval world map of Friar Beatus Liebana (c. 730-798)^[5] although this map produced at the Abbey of St Sever in Gascony in the mid-eleventh century clearly indicates “sinus psicuss”.^[6] The Christian scholars at this time were also greatly influenced in the same manner as the Islamic scholars as the Hereford map, Mappa Mundi, indicates. Drawn by Richard of Haldringham between 1276 and 1285, it was a map for contemplation rather than practical use.^[7] Centred on Jerusalem it was a Christian representation of the world as laid down in the Book of Genesis. Despite the work and writings of the classicists and in later years by the Islamic writers, the west’s knowledge of the world during the Middle Ages was limited and perhaps hidden. Certainly during this period maps and any form of text were generally not available being restricted to a select few that would have included the clergy.

By the tenth century the empire of Islamic control and influence was at its height and covered most of the known world at that time. From the Middle East it extended through north Africa, into Spain and the lower Mediterranean, north to the Caucasus and east to, north of Afghanistan and south to the Indus. Ibn H?awk?al^[8], Arab geographer of the second half of the 10^th century of Nisibis in Upper Mesopotamia, travelled extensively through the Middle East and across North Africa to Spain between ad 943-973. A contemporary of of al-Is?t?ak_h_ri^[9] whom he met, his main work, Configuration of the Earth, is considered to be more original than the works of al-Is?t?ak_h_ri. He wrote the following account of the extent of the Islamic empire about ad 975:

 

The length of the Empire of Islam in our days extends from the limits of Farghana, passing through Khurasan, al-Jibal (Media), Iraq and Arabia as far as the coast of Yaman, which is a journey of about four months; its breadth begins from the country of the Rum (the Byzantine Empire), passing through Syria, Mesopotamia, Iraq, Fars and Kirman, as far as the territory of al-Mansura on the shore of the sea of Fars (Indian Ocean), which is about four month’s travelling. In the previous statement of length I have omitted the frontier (northern Africa) and Andalus (Spain), because it is like the sleeve of a garment. To the east, however, beyond Egypt into the country of the Maghrib, the lands of the Sudan (the Black) lie to the south of the Maghrib and, to its north, the Sea of Rum (the Mediterranean) and next the territory of Rum.^[10]

 

Travelling through Iraq, Khuzistan and Fars (961-9),Ibn H?awk?al says:

 

Then we come to Sînîr, which is larger than Máhy-Ruyân and this Sînîr is the port of all Pars or Farsistân. From thence the shore winds on to Bijiram, [the Najîram of el-Idrîsy and Abulféda]. Between Jannâbah and Bijiram there are groves, and meadows, and villages, and the air becomes very warm here From this you proceed to Sîrâf, one of the most ample harbours in all Pars. Sîrâf is a large town, one of the eyes of the towns of Fars. Here there is not any cultivation of ground, and they bring water from a distance. Passing by this along the shore, by places where there are hills and descents, you come to the Husn-Ibn-’Amârah. This is a very strong castle; in all Pars there is not one fort more strong and in better condition. From this place you proceed to Hormûz, which is the port of Kermân.

At Sîrâf they abound in marine productions and commodities brought by sea, such as aloes, ambergris, camphire, pearls, canes, ivory, and ebony; pepper, sandals and various kinds of drugs and medicines are sent from that place to all quarters of the world; and in this city there are such wealthy merchants that several of them possess fortunes of 60,000 direms, and I have seen them.^[11]

 

Ibn H?awk?al wrote of Hormuz the city on the mainland:

 

Hormuz is the emporium of the merchants in Kirman, and their chief seaport; it has mosques and market places, and the merchants reside in the suburbs.^[12]

 

Ibn K_h_urradad_h_bih^[13] (c. 820-911) around ad 900 compiled his Kitabal-Masalik wa?L-mamalik or Book of itineries and kingdoms^[14]as Director of Posts and Intelligence in D_j_ibal. His book was a detailed guide to the postal system and gave important details such as the precise distances between towns and cities including that from Basra (Bassora) to India.^[15] The chief writers of the period besides Ibn K_h_urradad_h_bih (c. 870) were al-Ya?k?ubi^[16] (c. 890), Ibn al-Fak?ih^[17] (c. 903) and Ibn Rusta^[18] (c. 910).^[19]

Al-Mas?udi, Abu 'l-H?asan ?Ali, (Mas’udi or Massoudy) who was born in Baghdad c. 893 began his travels in 915 and died 956/957.^[20] In his journeys he visited India, China, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Persia, Ceylon, Central Asia, Armenia, northern Africa, Spain and eastern Europe. He produced an encyclopaedic work entitled ‘Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems’ containing descriptions of the world, the globe and the seas together with history of the various peoples of the world.^[21] In his works he acknowledges the differences between the geographers and travellers or sailors by stating that the seafaring people from the ports on the Persian Gulf, who are well at home in those seas, do not agree with the measurements given by the scholars.^[22]

al-Mas?udi had the following to say about the Persian Gulf:

 

There are marks of wood erected for the sailors in the sea, at Hezárah, on the side of el-Obollah and ‘Abbadan, which look like three seats in the middle of the water, and upon which fires are burnt by night, to caution the vessels which come from ‘Oman, Síráf, and other ports, least they run against the Hezárah; for if they run there, they are wrecked and lost.^[23]

 

At the Sofálah of the country of the Zanj another gulf branches off, and this is the Persian sea which comes up to el-Obollah, to the Khashabát, (the wooden sea-marks), and to ‘Abbádán which belongs to el-Basrah. The length of this gulf is one thousand four hundred miles, and the breadth at the entrance five hundred miles, but in some places it is not above one hundred miles wide. This gulf has a triangular shape, at one angle el-Obollah is situated, thence the gulf extends towards the east along Fáris. Of the places situated on this coast, we name Persian Daurak, Máherbán (Mahrúbán), and Shíníz; from this town the embroidered Shínízee cloth has its name; for this and other sorts of clothes are manufactured there: farther the town of Jannábah, whence the Jannabee cloth has its name; the town of Najíram, belonging to Síráf, then the countries of Ibn ‘Imárah, the coast of Kermán and the coast of Mokrán which is the country of the Khawárij, who are Heretics. The whole of this coast is a palm country: then comes the coast of es-Sind there are the mouths of the river Mihrán which is the river of es-Sind (Indus), and has been described. In the es-Sind is the town of ed-Daïbol. Then comes the coast of India, the country of Borúdh whence the Borúdhí cinnabar has its name. Thence extends one interrupted coast as far as China, partly cultivated, partly waste.

On the coast opposite the mentioned countries as Kermán and es-Sind is el-Bahraïn, the islands of Kotr, the Shatt of the Bení Jadìmah, (who belong to the ‘Abdel-Kais tribe), Omán, the country of el-Mahrah as far as the promontory of el-Jomjomah in the country of esh-Shihr; on this coast is also el-Ahkáf, and near the coast many islands are situated, like the island of Khárak which belongs to the country of Jannábah, and has its surname after it: between this island and the continent is a strait of a few miles, in which the pearls called Khárají pearls are found. Another island is called the isle of Awál there live the Bení Ma’n, the Bení Mismár, and a great number of other Arabs. It is about one day or less from the towns of the coast of Merán, which belongs to el-Bahraïn. On this coast which is called the coast of Hajar, are the towns ez-Zárah and el-Katíf.

After the isle of Awál are many other islands as the isle Láfit which is also called the island of the Bení Káwán. It has been conquered by ‘Amr Ben el-’Así, and there is his mosque standing to this day. this island is very populous well cultivated, and has several villages. At a short distance from it is the island of Haïjám. there the sailors take in water. Then the mountains known under the name of Kosaïr, Owaïr, and a third one the name of which is not known. Then ed-Dordúr, which is called the terrible Dordúr, and by the sailors the father of hell; at these parts of the sea rise enormous black rocks high overhanging the water, neither plants nor animals can live on them, and under them the sea is very deep and stormy, hence everybody who sails there is filled with fear; they are between ‘Omán and Síráf, and vessels cannot help sailing through the midst of them. there is a constant current of the water which makes it foam. This sea, I mean the Persian gulf, which is also called the Persian sea, is skirted by the countries and towns which we have enumerated, as el-Bahreïn, Fáris, el-Basrah, and Omán, and extends as far as the promontory of el-Jomjomah. Between the Persian gulf and the gulf of el-Kolzom and Aïlah (the Red Sea), is the Hejáz and el-Yemen; this land extends fifteen hundred miles between the two gulfs, forming a peninsula which is surrounded for the most part by the sea before described.^[24]

 

We have said that the Persian Gulf begins from the sea-marks of el-Basrah, and a place called el-Kankelá. there are marks of wood erected in the sea, to insure the navigation to ‘Oman, which is a distance of three hundred farsangs. On the coast of this sea are Fáris and el-Bahraïn. From ‘Oman, the capital of which is Sohár, which the Persians call Mazún, to el-Maskat, which is a village where the sailors take in water from the fresh-water wells which are there, are fifty farsangs. This is the limit of the sea of Fáris, the whole length of which is four hundred farsangs. This is the division recognized by sailors.^[25]